Early Medieval Northumbria

The end of Roman rule

With the end of the Roman control of north-east England in the early 5th century, religious life in the region was diverse. Christianity, which had been introduced in the 4th century, showed continuity, and may even have expanded north of Hadrian’s Wall. Evidence for this can be seen in the form of a possible church at Vindolanda, as well as an early Christian tombstone from close to the site. However, existing native pagan traditions may also have continued to be important, although this is not always easy to recognise archaeologically.

This mix of Christianity and indigenous religious practices appear to have continued through much of the fifth century. However, things started to change from this point. Increasingly, the region started to see the arrival of new forms of society, particularly groups influenced by Germanic cultural traditions, through both direct migration from the continental mainland and their subsequent influence on local native populations. This saw the spread of new forms of paganism into northern England, reflecting Anglian practices. It is not easy to simplistically link burial practice to religious practice, but early medieval burials in this period do start to show the use of grave-goods, perhaps reflecting some kind of belief in the afterlife. The Venerable Bede, writing much later, in the 8th century, does also make some mention of possible earlier pagan traditions. A whale-bone box, probably produced in Northumbria, known as the Franks Casket also shows what appear to be images from pagan myths alongside Christian imagery.

We have little other direct evidence for this early English paganism – there is nothing to suggest that permanent temple structures were constructed in this period; instead the houses of the social elites may also have had some ritual function. Some early Anglian settlements and burials were placed in close proximity to prehistoric monuments – a good example of this is the great palace site at Yeavering in North Northumberland. This juxtaposition of early medieval sites with earlier remains may have had a symbolic resonance.

A major change in the religious landscape of North-East England came in the later seventh century with the expansion of Christianity. By this point, the region was part of a major early kingdom known as Northumbria, which also included Yorkshire, regions to the west of the Pennines and Southern Scotland. A major figure in the consolidation of Northumbria was King Edwin (AD586-632). He was the first known Northumbrian ruler to embrace Christianity. He married the Aethelburh, Christian daughter of Aethelbert, king of Kent, who brought her personal chaplain Paulinus with her when she moved north. He encouraged Edwin to convert, and in AD627 he chose to be baptised. According to the writings of Bede, this was followed by mass baptisms of the wider population of the kingdom at both Catterick in North Yorkshire, and Yeavering in North Northumberland. Under Edwin, a stream of Christianity with close links to Kent and ultimately Francia became dominant in the Northumbrian court. However, there were major changes following Edwin’s defeat in battle by the pagan Mercian king Penda and Cadwalla, a powerful Christian king from North Wales.

Edwin was succeeded by his nephew Oswald, who had been in exile in western Scotland, where he was sheltered by the Irish-speaking kingdom of Dal Riada. Here, he and his family also converted to Christianity, probably on the great island monastery of Iona, off Mull. In Oswald’s case, he converted to a slightly different form of Christianity, one influenced by the traditions of the Northern Ireland.  This resulted in a complex situation in Northumbria, as followers of both the Ionan-Irish and Kentish-Frankish forms of Christianity lived side by side.

This early period of Christianity in Anglian Northumbria saw the establishment of the first monasteries. These were sites where communities dedicated to Christian worship were located; in addition to their religious purposes, they also acted as centres for agricultural production and craft and industry. In a part of Britain where towns were absent, these monasteries were the largest population centres and often became focuses for trade and exchange. The best known of these early monasteries is Lindisfarne – founded by Oswald with help from monks from Iona in AD635, although other monasteries such as Hartlepool were also founded at this time.

There were many similarities between the Irish and Kentish forms of Christianity, and they were both part of the same wider Christian church, but there were also important differences, including the way in which Easter was calculated and the form of haircut worn by monks . Tensions increasingly rose between the two streams of Christianity, resulting in the Northumbrian king Oswiu holding a church meeting at the monastery of Whitby in AD664. Here, he heard representations from churchmen holding both positions, and finally decided that church of Northumbria should follow the Kentish-Frankish approach. As a result, monasteries such as Lindisfarne stopped following Irish traditions and became increasingly integrated with the church in other parts of England, although they often maintained some contacts with Iona and the churches of the north and west.

Following the Synod of Whitby, monasticism became increasingly consolidated. Two of the most important new monasteries were those founded at Monkwearmouth and Jarrow by Benedict Biscop, who had close connections with the church in Gaul and further afield. These two monasteries were paired together, and Jarrow was of course most famous for its close association with the great Anglian historian and scholar, Bede, who lived and wrote there in the later 7th and early 8th century. It is through his work, particularly his Ecclesiastical History of the English People that we know so much about the early years of the Christian church in Northumbria.

In the 7th century most churches were built of wood, but increased connections with the wider church abroad saw the introduction of the practice of building churches of stone. This was an important change, particularly at a time when even royal residences were only built in timber. A number of important examples of early stone churches survive in the north-east. The small church at Escomb, near Bishop Auckland, is one of the best surviving early medieval churches in Britain. It has two main areas: a larger nave, where the altar and the congregation would have been located, and a smaller sanctuary to the east which was used by priests at certain points in the mass. The external corners of the church includes large stone blocks laid out in alternating directions, often called long-and-short work on account of its appearance. Other important examples of early stone churches survive at Monkwearmouth, where the western porch to the church formed a monumental entrance into the church, and was subsequently extended upwards and turned into a tower. The standing structures at Escomb, Monkwearmouth and Jarrow all include typical small early medieval windows. Archaeological excavation at Monkwearmouth and Jarrow has produced early coloured window glass, showing that these small windows were probably originally glazed.

Another important early stone structure is the crypt at Hexham Abbey. Built in AD674 and associated with St Wilfrid, this small complex of subterranean passages and a central chamber was built almost entirely from stone re-used from Roman sites associated with the nearby Hadrian’s Wall. It probably functioned to house relics of saints, and its design and layout may have been influenced by the crypt in St Peters at the Vatican in Rome. Many early medieval churchmen would have made the pilgrimage to Rome and would have had familiarity with its architecture.

It was very important for the early churches to have elaborate settings for the relics of saints. Holy men, particularly the founders of monastery, were central to the functioning of the early church. They could attain a reputation for sanctity and be acclaimed as saints. Saints were important ,as their relics (both their bodies and objects associated with them) could become the focus of devotion and pilgrimage. Pilgrims and devotees would often bring gifts or offer donations to the monastery housing the relics – in this way, saints and their relics could lead to monasteries becoming immensely wealthy. Perhaps the most famous of these early Northumbrian saints was Cuthbert, who was associated with Lindisfarne. On his death, his body was buried at the heart of the monastery. After a decade, it was exhumed and found to have not decayed. This was deemed a miracle, and his body was placed in a wooden shrine, wrapped in silks and had a series of holy objects, including a cross pendant, a comb and a portable altar, placed in the shrine alongside him. The devotion Cuthbert inspired saw him becoming the most popular saint in Northumbria, and Lindisfarne emerging as a powerful institution, religiously, politically and economically.  The creation of the Lindisfarne Gospels, one of the finest surviving illuminated manuscripts from the early church, was also associated with the emergence of Cuthbert as a focus for devotion.

One aspect of the early church that survives in abundance is the stone sculpture that has been commonly found at ecclesiastical sites of this period. Although simple stone sculpture showing Christian imagery was known from other parts of Britain in this period, Northumbria became a particular centre for the production of stone sculptures. Some of these monuments were intended as burial markers, but many of the stone crosses that have survived probably had other purposes. Some may have acted as boundary markers for important monasteries, whilst others may have marked important places within the monasteries and acted as focuses for prayer and devotion. Although these now survive as raw stone, most were probably originally painted and may have had glass or metal inserts placed in them.

By the end of the eight century, the Northumbrian church was in its Golden Age. The monasteries were very powerful and owned huge tracts of land, they attracted pilgrims from across Britain and beyond, all bringing gifts. They were also home to skilled artists and craftsmen working on manuscripts, creating decorative metal items and working in stone. They also housed and trained scholars of international repute and influence, including Bede and Alcuin. However, at the very end of the century, a new and worrying threat emerged.

Lindisfarne was one of the first places in Britain to suffer an attack by the Vikings. The infamous raid of 793 was the bolt from the blue and presaged a period of fierce and sustained pressure on the church. The intensity of raids built up over the course of the first half of the 9th century. These Scandinavian attackers had probably first encountered monasteries as traders, but realised there were more direct ways of exploiting their stores of wealth. These raid were aimed at both taking portable treasures, such as gold and silver reliquaries, but also taking captives who could be sold as slaves in the great markets of mainland Europe.

Whilst in the short-term these raids depleted the monasteries of much wealth, the more sustained impact came as the Viking raiders became settlers and their leaders began to dismantle the great estates owned by the monasteries to provide land on which they could farm and provide as rewards to their followers. As a result, many major monasteries became far less powerful, falling in status, often never to recover. However, whilst many monasteries lost their power, with the conversion to Christianity by the Vikings there was an expansion of more local churches, which acted as centres for their local communities, and often became the burial sites for local lords and their families. This is reflected by a new flowering of sculpture, being mainly produced for these lords. This sculpture showed some Scandinavian influence in its design, and often had images of secular life, such as mounted warriors .  New forms of stone sculpture were introduced, such as ‘hogback’ monuments, long low stones, often with distinctive curved tops and sometimes decorated with inscribed ‘rooftiles’. Once thought to be particularly connected to Vikings, ‘hogbacks’ are now recognised as incorporating many influences from earlier sculptural traditions.

Not all monasteries went into a period of decline with the emergence of Viking influence. The Community of St Cuthbert based at Lindisfarne went through a period of transformation and emerged even stronger. Initially facing the brunt of repeated Viking attacks, the relics of Cuthbert were taken to a new site inland, although monastic life clearly continued on the Island itself, as shown by recent excavations. The traditional story is that the relics went to Norham and were then toured through Northern England before spending time at Chester-le-Street and ultimately arriving at Durham at the end of the 1st millennium AD. However, recent reanalysis of the historical sources suggests an alternative scenario with the relics only arriving in Durham in the 11th century having spent most of their time in Norham on the Tweed. Whatever the precise story, it is clear that the Community of St Cuthbert was  by the 10th century powerful enough to act as king-maker, putting a Viking king on the throne of Northumbria – they also held onto their land holdings across Durham and Northumberland and becoming the focus for the church in the North East once the Normans arrived .